For Latter-day Saint scholars, both secular history as a discipline and religious studies related to the restoration of the gospel and the history of the restored Church have long been established fields of study. But until recently, the field of Latter-day Saint providential history has been largely neglected. Yet, as the chapters in this volume and its predecessor have shown, there exists a legitimate field of inquiry, which, by drawing on interpretation and insights from modern revelation, may begin to bridge the gap between purely secular and religious historical studies. Such inquiry will undoubtedly enhance and bring new insights to both fields and provide understanding to sincere followers of Christ who wish to better appreciate God’s role in human affairs.
Building on insights from earlier chapters, this concluding chapter will attempt to place Latter-day Saint providential history within the broad confines of other kinds of providential history and define it in relationship to general trends within them. While many of the methodological issues are the same across all fields of providential history, Latter-day Saint providential history has the distinct advantage of doctrinal insights and the divine affirmations of God’s involvement in specific human events, as a result of belief in the Restoration and ongoing revelation.
There are a number of circumstances which would indicate the time is ripe for the further development of Latter-day Saint providential history as a discipline. These include the expanded and worldwide growth of the Church, the calamitous state of human affairs and the growing number of natural disasters; and, apart from the Lord’s ongoing imperative to acknowledge “his hand in all things” (D&C 59:21), a variety of developments in the historical discipline, which have made faith-based history more acceptable in academe. In that optic, this chapter will define Latter-day Saint providential history as a field of inquiry and explore its underlying assumptions. Questions of approach, methodology, the use of evidence in a Latter-day Saint context, and objections frequently raised by Latter-day Saint scholars, will be examined and the advantages and limitations of Latter-day Saint providential history will be assessed.
The chapter will conclude with the evaluation of four main methods and approaches for further study.[1] These include the direct application of revealed truth as an interpretive guide, the use of patterns and principles derived from scripture and revelation as possible guidelines, and a Latter-day Saint based philosophy for the interpretation of history. Such a philosophy would be consistent with the world view associated with the restoration of the gospel and the aims and purposes of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Finally, the benefits of comparative studies are explored as a way of positioning and enriching Latter-day Saint providential history within the broader spectrum of providential history. The ultimate objective is to anchor the discipline of Latter-day Saint providential history on a sound academic mooring, and to establish it as a legitimate field of inquiry that will provide valuable insights not only for the Latter-days Saints but also for the larger academic community of providential history.
Latter-day Saint Providential History within the Context of Contemporary Providential History
Providential history is not a new genre—in fact it was the prevailing historical approach through the seventeenth century in Europe, and only gave way to more secular approaches as a result of the eighteenth century Enlightenment and the subsequent secularization of society in the nineteenth century.[2] While secular approaches had come to dominate historical inquiry by the beginning of the twentieth century, providential history made a significant comeback in the post-World War II period, producing such recognizable giants as Christopher Dawson, Reinhold Neibuhr and Herbert Butterfield, each of whom advanced credible theories on the nature of God’s involvement in a world sometimes gone awry. Beginning with an evangelical and fundamentalist focal point under the auspices of John Warwick Montgomery, the Conference on Faith and History begun in 1967, soon evolved into the more critically-minded Calvin College school of providential history. This school has produced a number of prominent scholars, such as C. T. McIntire, George M. Marsden, Ronald A. Wells, and several others. Other providential historians, such as David W. Bebbington, an advocate of deeper reliance on Christian faith, and more recently, Stephen H. Webb, writing on American providential history, Steven J. Keilor, on the judgments of God on the nations, and Robert E. Frykenberg, on the assimilation of Christianity in India--to mention but a few--have made important contributions. Though a small minority compared with secular historians, providential historians continue to make their presence felt.[3]
In his discussion of contemporary providential historians, Brian Q. Cannon has identified an ongoing trend in the discipline marked by the ebb and flow of faith-based approaches. “In sum, the affirmation of faith among succeeding generations of providential historians has been tempered by criticism, followed by a reaffirmation of faith-based interpretations.” This tension he has noted, “has often centered on the broad questions of divine influence and the relative weight it should be given in the light of material factors in the human experience, the insufficiency and ambiguity of the scriptural record as the basis for definitive affirmations, and the volition of man in the total equation.” The same dynamic has operated in Latter-day Saint history as Cannon has so carefully pointed out.[4] The key issue has been how much of what happens is attributable to God, and how much is due to human volition or other material factors, and more poignantly how one can tell the difference. This is not an easy question to resolve, even if we had all the relevant documentation, as individuals functioning under divine influence may not always recognize the source of their enlightenment (see 3 Nephi 9:20).
The field of Latter-day Saint providential history, as it relates to the themes of world history has been scattered, with sporadic treatments in the field itself, and cursory, if thoughtful, appraisals of its potential by noted scholars, such as Richard Bushman and others of a generation ago.[5] While there has thus been little Latter-day Saint providential history on which to make a comparison, it would appear to fall into the same pattern as other providential history in that it too has followed a common ebb and flow. Without taking the comparison too far, the variety of Latter-day Saint providential history espoused in this book and its predecessor would appear to fall within the tradition of Montgomery and Bebbington, who were on the side of reaffirming the potential of faith-based history to their colleagues. While Montgomery had a teleological concept of world history based on the Biblical model, culminating in the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, Bebbington reaffirmed a generation later that the Christian, can “put his vision of the historical process into writing.”[6] Similarly, although I am a professional historian trained in the established traditions of academe, my interest in Latter-day Saint providential history stemmed not from looking at the potential of Latter-day Saint history from the academic point of view, but from a faith-based paradigm developed from within the Latter-day Saint belief system. Like many of the new faith-based proponents of various brands of providential history, I concluded that there was much that could be done.[7]
The argument for Latter-day Saint providential history is that it has multiple advantages over other faith-based approaches, for those who believe in the Restoration and continuing revelation. As outlined earlier, Latter-day Saint providential historians have several advantages over providential historians of other persuasions. Knowledge of the restoration of the gospel through a modern-day prophet Joseph Smith and the subsequent development and growth of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints provide a modern example of divine intervention beyond that found in the Bible, the traditional Christian canon of scripture. The enlarged canon of scripture found in the standard works of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the statements of modern prophets and apostles provide a foundation for the exploration of the divine role in the unfolding of providential history from the time of the apostles to the great winding-up scenes described in the book of Revelations, which are not available to other providential historians.
In addition, the restored gospel provides new insights into the divine plan of God for the salvation of His children. Beginning with an awareness of a pre-earthly existence, the gospel plan provides a broader understanding of the principle of agency and the conflict between good and evil in earth life, which frames all of human history on earth. For the plan of salvation to be fully operative, Divine intervention is a necessity in the form of a Savior and ongoing revelation to make known the plan of salvation. A additional advantage is the belief in continuing revelation which holds within its scope the possibility of further enlightenment on the divine role with regard to times and places now only dimly sketched or not at all known, as these come into focus with the extension of the gospel across the earth (see A of F 9; D&C 121:26-32; 101: 32-34). Against the contextual backdrop of providential historians of other backgrounds, this new study, taken in conjunction with its predecessor, underscores the possibilities for the further development of Latter-day Saint providential history as a discipline and field of inquiry.
The Global Context
While Latter-day Saints have pondered the divine role in human affairs since the time of Joseph Smith and the restoration of the gospel, a number of current circumstances have awakened a new interest in that inquiry. The rapid growth and globalization of the Church and a broadened appreciation of its mission have not only heightened our awareness of the divine role in its development but have also raised questions of God’s hand in preparing the societies in which it functions and hopes to function in the future. The troubled conditions in the world have likewise refocused the attention of the Latter-day Saints on God’s role in previous human experience and underlined the Lord’s instruction to Joseph Smith to pursue knowledge of both spiritual and secular history (D&C 93:53). In troubled times, reflection on the divine role in past events can reinforce prophetic assurances for the future. Additionally, with the growing acceptance in academia of faith-based historical inquiry, the field of Latter-day Saint providential history has become more acceptable to the academic community.
An extended reach and a broadened perspective. As The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints escaped the isolation of the intermountain west in the twentieth century to become a truly worldwide church, its role has been expanded and its vision extended. The extended reach of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has been both numerical and in scope of activity. The membership of the Church reached 1 million in 1947, about 4 million in 1978, 11 million in 2000, and by the end of 2017, had exceeded 16 million. By 2000, more than half of the membership of the Church resided outside the United States and Canada—about 58 percent by the end of 2017--making it a truly international church, with a global reach. The number of temples in operation has expanded proportionately--with 159 in operation at the end of 2017, 12 under construction and 31 announced, with 54 percent of these outside the United States and Canada. Other indexes of Church growth, such as the expansion of institutes and seminaries, show a similar pattern of expansion and reflect the globalization of the Church.[8]
Building on the work of his predecessors, President Spencer W. Kimball, during his period as President of the Church (1973-1985), helped us raise our vision and change the way in which we view the world. In 1976 he gave us a vision of the missionary forces from east and west moving forward to encompass the Eurasian land mass. Under his leadership, the attitude toward communist countries softened, accepting them as they were, allowing for missionary work in them. At the same time, he promised that “iron curtains,” “bamboo curtains” and “neighborhood curtains” would fall as members of the Church prepared to preach the gospel to everyone. The dramatic and unexpected fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 allowed the gospel to be preached more widely in several formerly communist countries of the eastern bloc, and to extend even into the countries of the former Soviet Union, including Russia itself. Our vision with regard to other religions and peoples was expanded. The First Presidency’s 1978 “Statement Regarding God’s Love for All Mankind” affirmed that divine influence had been felt in the wisdom and truths revealed to thinkers and philosophers of many countries, “to lift whole nations,” mentioning by name religious leaders such as Mohammed, Confucius and the Religious reformers, and also philosophers, Socrates and Plato. There followed shortly thereafter the revelation on the priesthood, extending its blessings to all worthy males, regardless of race or color. This opened up missionary work in all of Africa and accelerated it in Brazil and many other parts of the world.[9]
President Kimball also made numerous statements on the importance of divinely inspired advances in technology, particularly in the means of transportation and communications, in spreading the word.[10] The growing strength of the Church in the last decades of the twentieth century and early decades of the twentieth century has allowed it to assume a major role in humanitarian aid, and also in extending educational opportunities among less privileged Saints through the Perpetual Education Fund started in 2001.[11] Our view of the extent of God’s interaction with the human family has thus been extended on many fronts. Such an expanded view would suggest, as a concomitant, an expanded appreciation of God’s influence, temporally in history and laterally in scope of action.
An anchor in troubled times. In 1823, the Angel Moroni informed Joseph Smith of “great judgments which were coming on the earth, with great desolations by famine, sword, and pestilence; and that these grievous judgments would come upon the earth in this generation” (Joseph Smith-History, 45). The history of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in themselves bears ample witness to the truthfulness of this prophecy.
The trend appears to be accentuating with the rising tide of troubling events in the first decade of the twenty-first century. The deeply disturbing terrorist attack on the twin towers of the New York World Trade Center in 2001was followed by prolonged wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. The worldwide financial and economic collapse of 2008 giving rise to a long recession has rocked the confidence of many people. These events, coupled with an unprecedented moral decline which has seen the expansion of gay marriage and the decline of family values to the extent that by 2007, forty percent of children born in the US were born out of wedlock,[12] cannot help but underscore our awareness that we are living in the perilous times of the last days (see 1 Timothy 3:1-10).
The horrific tsunami in southeast Asia in 2004 resulted in the loss of almost 300,000 people listed as either dead or missing[13] and hurricane Katrina culminated in the destruction of much of New Orleans in 2005.[14] In more recent memory, part of the eastern US Seaboard was devastated by hurricane Sandy in 2012, while typhoon Haiyan wrought massive destruction in the Philippines in 2013, not to mention the hugely destructive tornadoes of the American Midwest in 2012 and subsequent years. The great Chinese earthquake of 2008, with the loss of approximately 70,000 lives,[15] was followed in 2010 by the huge Haitian earthquake which, according to estimates by the Haitian government, cost the lives of 320,000 people.[16] These massive earthquakes and many lesser ones serve as stark reminders that we are living in the last days, and that the prophecy “of earthquakes, in divers places” is indeed being fulfilled (cf. Matt. 24:3-8). The growing crescendo of natural disasters is a stark reminder of the Lord’s statement to Joseph Smith more than 175 years ago: “For after your testimony cometh the testimony of earthquakes, that shall cause groanings in the midst of her, and men shall fall upon the ground and not be able to stand. And also cometh the testimony of the voice of thunderings, and the voice of lightnings, and the voice of tempests, and the voice of the waves of the sea heaving themselves beyond their bounds” (D&C 88:89-90).[17] The heaving of waters beyond their bounds is a frequent component of large ocean-based storms as they touch down on land.
Faced with this combination of cataclysmic events and moral, political and economic disruption, faithful Saints may well be comforted to know that God is at the helm, and that He has a plan for their spiritual and temporal salvation (see 1 Nephi 22:16-22). The remembrance of God’s deliverance of his covenant people in scriptural accounts and since the Restoration has become all the more poignant. Faithful Church members have the assurance that just as the God of Heaven has sustained His worthy Saints in times past, surely He will do so in the future, if they but put their trust in Him, “walk uprightly and keep the commandments,” and follow the counsel of the living prophet.[18] The study of God’s intervention in the past thus assumes much greater relevance in light of the challenges of the present and the future (see D&C 1:35-36). Added to these incentives is the immediacy of preparing for the Second Coming, which has been emphasized in the teaching of President Russell M. Nelson.[19]
A divine obligation. Latter-day Saint providential history thus appears to be a field worthy of further exploration and study. The abundance of resources, in modern scriptures and prophetic statements, make it possible to open a broadened field of inquiry. “Unto whom much is given, much is required” (D&C 82:3). The divine injunction is to explore all of God’s works and to learn “Of things both in Heaven and in the earth, and under the earth; things which have been, things which are, things which must shortly come to pass; things which are at home, things which are abroad; the wars and perplexities of the nations, and the judgments which are on the land; and a knowledge also of countries and kingdoms” (D&C 88:79). Joseph Smith was further instructed specifically “to obtain a knowledge of history, and of countries, and of kingdoms, of laws of God and man, and all this for the salvation of Zion” (D&C 93:53). The divine injunction to explore all aspects of history, including the role of deity appears to be still in effect.
Faith-based history more acceptable in academe. Rank and file church members, in conformity with this instruction, readily acknowledge the influence of divine providence in their own lives and in the broader canvass of human events and happenings. But professional Latter-day Saint historians, trained in secular institutions, have been hesitant to take up Latter-day Saint providential history as a discipline. Among other reasons, many have been reluctant to incur the criticism and perhaps opprobrium of their secular colleagues in mixing religion and history, with the result that scholarship in Latter-day Saint providential history has been lagging. But, as Brian Q. Cannon has explained in an earlier chapter, there has been a greater willingness to accept faith-based approaches to historical interpretation, partly as a result of the recognition in post-modernist thought that objectivity is not an absolute and must always be qualified by the viewpoint of the historian. This has opened the door to a wider range of historical interpretation and eliminated some of the constraints against seeking interpretations based solely on the empirical record. Latter-day Saints scholars, with the advantage of modern revelation, thus have the potential to fill in a needed dimension in providential history, both for an audience of Church members and the scholarly community at large. Just as scholars are willing to enrich their study of history by Islamic, Christian or Jewish assessments, so they may be enriched to explore those influenced by Latter-day Saint beliefs and values. The challenge is to systemize such inquiry so as to enhance its credibility as a legitimate field of academic study.
Providential History and Modern Revelation
The basic notion of providential history, written from whatever perspective, is that God has played a role in human affairs. A basic assumption for providential historians who have written within the Christian context is that the Bible, consisting of Old and New Testaments, is the authentic word of God and the ultimate authority for determining God’s role in human affairs. In the absence of ongoing revelation, many have been forced to look to the traditions and values of their church or religious persuasion for historical interpretation. Several have lamented the absence of continuing revelation to guide them in understanding God’s will in the post-apostolic Christian era.[20] Latter-day Saints, on the other hand, have the advantage of modern revelation, offering a broader range of tools.
Latter-day Saint providential historians make as their basic assumption that the authentic word of God includes the standard works of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints—the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price—plus the inspired statements of modern prophets. Just as the doctrines of the restored Church may be seen to include, encompass, augment and sometimes correct those of traditional Christianity, so Latter-day Saint providential history, drawing on the source of continuing revelation, ought to have the capacity to enhance traditional providential history in many of the same ways. The new scriptures associated with the Restoration and ongoing revelation may be marshaled to augment the understanding of God’s will and divine intervention as found in the Bible. The field of providential history, whether Protestant, Catholic, Jewish or Islamic in orientation, or concerned with the manifest destiny of America, may thus be enriched by insights from modern revelation, as Latter-day Saint scholars develop their own brand of providential history.
New Understandings. The theological outburst of knowledge associated with the restoration of the gospel not only provides additional information relative to divine involvement in human affairs, but places human history within a broadened context. In particular, the Restoration provides more information on the first phase of man’s eternal journey, opening a vista on man’s pre-earthly existence. It illuminates the principles that were involved in the agency of man in either accepting or rejecting Heavenly Father’s plan of salvation for his children. It details the fall and expulsion of Lucifer and his followers from Heaven and their confinement to the earth to tempt and try the other two-thirds of Heavenly Father’s children—who, as embodied spirits, would face choice and opposition in this second testing phase on earth. This provides a fundamental appreciation of the nature of earth life and human experience. Within this paradigm, man’s agency on earth and his right to choose between competing forces of good and evil are basic to all human history and experience. The foreknowledge of God in designing a plan for man’s growth and development and its realization thus illuminate fundamental aspects of the human experience.[21] The scope for understanding God’s role in human affairs has thus been much expanded for the Latter-day Saint providential historian by a broadened understanding of the divine plan of salvation, as a result of modern revelations to Joseph Smith and subsequent prophets.
The key is seeing things from God’s point of view. As Craig James Ostler makes clear, in an earlier chapter in Window of Faith, many of the unfortunate things on earth such as natural disasters, the ravages of disease, tyranny, oppression, inhumanity and injustice, the suffering and death of the innocent, make little or no sense, unless framed within the concept of the Atonement of Jesus Christ, which can remedy all these ills.[22] A reflection on the nature of the divine plan and the divine attributes of deity, as Scott Esplin has explained, may help to explain why God does not intervene to right wrongs or prevent human suffering, which humans would have Him do.[23]
Many problems nevertheless remain veiled to our understanding. We only know for sure in historical as in doctrinal matters what God has chosen to reveal. Jacob, a Book of Mormon prophet, explains this conundrum and the importance of revelation in coming to even a partial understanding of divine ways: “Behold, great and marvelous are the works of the Lord. How unsearchable are the depths of the mysteries of him; and it is impossible that man should find out all his ways. And no man knoweth of his ways save it be revealed unto him; wherefore, brethren, despise not the revelation of God” (Jacob 4:8, emphasis added). The revelation of what God has revealed is thus critical to any approach to providential history, even though coming to understand all of His ways is far beyond our comprehension.
The lesson to be drawn is certainly to embark on such studies with considerable humility and not to exaggerate what can be known. To attribute too much to divine intervention in human affairs may be as great a sin as to attribute too little. By the same token, we should not cast our light “under a bushel” (Matthew 5:15, 3 Nephi 12:15). The richness of modern revelation provides many additional insights about God, his intents and desires and his interaction with the human family. A balanced approach would appear to be most desirable. Not only the Bible, but the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, the Pearl of Great Price, and the statements of the prophets and apostles of the current age invite systematic study, in order to lay the foundations of a significant field of inquiry.
Using New Sources. An important issue for Latter-day Saint providential history is how to ascertain the authenticity of revealed sources. The basic assumption for Latter-day Saint scholars, who affirm the historicity of the scriptural texts, is that the Bible, “so far as it is translated correctly,”[24] and the other standard works of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, are authentic sources of the divine word. While interpretations and applications may vary, the reliability of these sources may not normally be called into question. One can thus benefit from the insights of prophet/historians in scriptural texts, who had the benefit of discerning by the Spirit of the Lord the works of men and women, according to the desires of their heart, and also to the extent revealed, the purposes of God and also the evil designs of Satan. Their attachment of significance to current and future events may provide guideposts of particular value (see Hel. 6:21-31, Ether 15:19, Morm.8:22, 2 Nephi 25-30). [25]
In the Latter-day Saint optic, the revelations of modern prophets--Joseph Smith and his post-restoration successors--are equally authoritative sources. To ascertain the reliability and authoritativeness of prophetic statements among modern prophets and apostles, however, as for questions of doctrine, is largely a theological issue, best resolved by the recognized guidelines on doctrinal matters within Church policy. The statements of modern prophets, those who, by virtue of holding all Priesthood keys (see D&C 132:7), stand in the same office as the Prophet Joseph Smith, are particularly reliable, for, as the Lord instructed, “his word ye shall receive as from my own mouth” (D&C 21:5), and “whether by mine own mouth or the mouth of my servants, it is the same” (D&C 1:38). The official pronouncements and statements of the living prophet are thus deemed particularly authoritative. As special witnesses of Jesus Christ, modern apostles are sustained as prophets, seers and revelators, but the living prophet is the only person who is appointed by the Lord at any given moment to receive revelation for the whole Church.
Apostles, in their own right, may be deemed reliable interpreters of doctrines already revealed. (See D&C 43:2-7). But, as in New Testament times, modern apostles and prophets, when not acting in the prophetic role, may express opinions that do not have the validity of scripture (see 1 Corinthians 7:6, 25; Alma 40:20), and apostles may occasionally differ among themselves, requiring further revelation from the Lord’s prophet to resolve the matter (see Acts 15:1-31).[26] Isolated statements or personal opinions may falsify the interpretation and need to be guarded against.
The historian who wishes to draw on the revealed word for historical interpretation must be as rigorous in his method as the secular historian and attempt to evaluate by critical methods the validity of each statement. To establish the authority of any line of interpretation, the historian who uses either scripture or prophetic statements for that purpose must rely on the statements of more than just one prophet or apostle, for, as the Apostle Paul stated, “in the mouth of two or three witnesses shall every word be established” (2 Corinthians 13:1; see also D&C 5:11, 6:28, 2 Nephi 11:3). One should seek the correlation of several prophetic views for any line of interpretation. The Latter-day Saint providential historian needs to be as well grounded in theology and doctrine as in history in the application of revealed truth to broader fields.
The critical-minded historian will attempt to see the context in which statements were given and their intent. The careful scholar will need to be cognizant of the position, background of the spiritual leader speaking or writing and consider when, where, and under what circumstances, and for what purposes their views were expressed. Such contextual analysis may require using a variety of background sources such as letters, position papers, private diaries, and previous opinions. The historian will thus try to determine whether each statement represents an authoritative revealed position, or is simply a cultural affirmation, or the particular view of the person making the statement. Sometimes, the record may present slightly differing views on fundamental issues, which the scholar may need to resolve by critical assessment.
One should also recognize that our knowledge of divine things is limited, for God reveals things “line upon line, precept upon precept; here a little, and there a little” (D&C 128:21; also Isaiah 28:10). The revealed word may provide some specific interpretations, and some principles and patterns, but will certainly leave many gaps. It is important, nevertheless, to go as far as we can in making divine connections. My own experience would suggest that on certain issues there is a much greater stock of prophetic witness than generally realized. While providential history, like secular history which it encompasses, must also rely on the material record and empirical research, its main contribution will be to include in its interpretation the divine role, so far as this is possible. Until all things are revealed (D&C 88:108-10), it must of necessity be sketchy and incomplete. Nevertheless, many important themes have been revealed in scriptural accounts and other divine pronouncements.
The Scriptural Anchor. What the scriptures as authoritative texts say about the role of God in history is thus vital, as they cover several thousand years of human experience within the context of the divine plan and its implementation under the watchful eye of deity. To carry out the plan, God has, in each age, called prophets to declare his word and has empowered them with priesthood authority to administer his ordinances. The role of scriptures in preserving God’s word, testifying of Christ and teaching gospel principles, and the role of witnesses in reaffirming God’s revealed word, are of vital importance. Additionally, prophecies may project divine intention and foreknowledge into future generations. The multiplicity of scriptural witnesses, which bring us messages filtered through the prism of different cultures and over extended periods of time, add strength to their affirmations. The rich heritage of the Bible and the scriptural records of the Latter-day Saints thus serve as fundamental building blocks for any assessment of the divine role in human affairs.[27]
The Bible is a prime example of providential history in that it encompasses not only God’s relationship with his covenant people, but extends to non-covenant peoples. The House of Israel is not alone. The relationship of covenant people with the rest of the world is also a major, if subsidiary, theme. The Old Testament details divine interactions with the Egyptians, Moabites, Canaanites, Philistines, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians, while the New Testament includes Romans, Greeks, Samaritans, Syrians and many other peoples. The Book of Mormon likewise talks not only of God’s relationship with covenant and non-covenant peoples, but in particular about a future “marvelous work among the gentiles” of vital importance for the gathering of the scattered remnants of the house of Israel (1 Nephi 22:7-12). As the Savior declared, Isaiah, out of necessity, spoke of the gentiles in his discussion of the house of Israel (3 Nephi 23: 1-3).
The period of the Restoration, with the scriptural foundation of the Doctrine and Covenants and various contemporary historical texts, details much of the relationship between God and his covenant people and also the outside world. The history of the restored Church and the divine role in its development is relatively well-treated. The book of Revelation talks much about the winding up scenes, the destiny of the nations, and the relationship between those enjoying the Lord’s favor and those who do not. But as indicated, a major gap for which there is but limited treatment of the divine role in human affairs is the current age of world history, when the gospel is to go to all the world. There is thus a vast field waiting for the student of Latter-day Saint providential history.[28]
Frequent Objections[29]
Despite the vast potential of providential history within the Latter-day Saint paradigm, there has been a surprising number within the fold of Latter-day Saint historians, trained in the great secular universities, who raise objections to such studies. While they generally acknowledge that this is a fruitful line of inquiry, many are uncomfortable with it for a variety of reasons. Some within the Latter-day Saint academic community would argue that the base of evidence is too incomplete and problematic. They point out that the record of divine involvement is either spotty or sketchy and often deals with generalities. Further, they contend that as apostles and prophets, both in scripture and in modern times, have sometimes disagreed or have later given greater illumination on a subject, it is not always possible to ascertain the authoritativeness of prophetic statements. The foundation, they say, is thus too shaky on which to build. While they believe in general that God may have played a role in history and probably has, they conclude that the revealed record is too fragmentary to pursue the study in a meaningful way. This appears to be the most common objection. These objection are reminiscent of those of Marsden and other in the Calvin College school of providential history.[30] Yet, as pointed out earlier, many of these concerns can be dealt with through critical use of evidence.
There are others, while assenting to the value of such studies, are more cautious in their approach, and who think that affirmations of divine influences as we have sometimes enunciated them, are too overt, and that historians should be much more tentative in their appraisal of the divine role. While willing to include insights from modern revelation in their interpretations, they are unwilling, as a result of academic demur, to give the same positive affirmations in their scholarly work that they would give personally on matters of salvation. Some doubt, in the Arrington tradition, that one can really know for sure that God has played a significant role in any specific event--or at least the unspecified details of it--and prefer only to suggest that He may have. They prefer to leave to the reader to infer that God may have played a role, while citing other causes of a socio-economic or human nature. For some, to mix religious concepts in their historical studies--even those written for a believing audience--would destroy their credibility with the wider world of scholars, and also impair their chance for promotion since academic promotions are peer reviewed. As Brian Cannon has indicated in his chapter, this is a concern shared with other providential historians, who fear that their faith-based interpretations may lack credibility in an academic tradition which has trouble including the divine and the miraculous in its discourse.
There are some, resistant to a faith-based model altogether, who object that Latter-day Saint providential historians “argue from a premise of a testimony of the Restoration and that since 1820 so much of so much better has occurred.” They say the discussion is very selective; that there is not enough discussion on why God allows evil to prevail, including famine, suffering and holocausts, if He really is in charge. Their objections seem to reflect basic philosophic doubts about the nature of God’s relationship to His children. The affirmation of faith and assertion of doubt common to other forms of providential history is thus evident in the ongoing discussion within Latter-day Saint providential history.
For those in Latter-day Saint religious education, the importance of the subject is more readily acknowledged, but there are some who feel that studies of God’s role in broader aspects of human history are peripheral to studies defined by the Restoration and the progress of the Church, for which there is abundant documentation and an approved method. Their main focus is to bring Latter-day Saint religious studies up to the standard of other academic studies. Some would argue that mixing God’s role with the unfolding of human events is trying to get students of Latter-day Saint theology to “believe too much,” and could be harmful to their faith if basic assumptions don’t prove to be well-founded. They forget that it may be a serious omission not to bring to light all that God has revealed on any given subject.
Many of the issues raised above are intrinsic to the study of providential history in general and for which there are no definitive solution. Providential history, like belief in other elements of the divine, requires faith. To a skeptical audience, the fundamental issue of combining the revealed word with empirical evidence remains a major challenge both from the point of view of methodology and credibility, despite a more accommodating attitude in academe. As shown, the question of how to cope with issues related to the use of additional evidence from revealed Latter-day Saint sources, while problematic, is less intractable than at first view. Many of the objections are those anchored in a certain optic of secular research or have to do with unresolved theological issues. It is therefore important to define the assumption and approaches which may serve as the groundwork for pursuit of the discipline.
Assumptions and Approaches
The affirmation of the divine in any discussion of God in history requires a well-defined frame of reference. For the faith-based Latter-day Saint providential historian, basic assumptions need to be clearly understood. The first is that God continues to speak to man, and that, by His own affirmation, He has played and continues to play an important role in human affairs; that He “rule[s] in the heavens above and in the earth beneath, in all wisdom and prudence, over all the intelligences” (Abraham 3:21); and therefore, that He guides human affairs to a greater or lesser extent. The assumption is that God is the Father of all and that the reach of His divine influence extends beyond those of the covenant (1 Nephi 13:10-20). It is indeed axiomatic that if God loves all of his children equally, He will, as a necessary corollary, exert His influence beyond those encompassed in the gospel covenant.
The strong determinism of providential historians of an earlier age, however, is to be rejected as incompatible with the fundamental notion of human agency which stands as a core concept in Latter-day Saint theology and doctrine. Satan is a being with real force in the world. Fundamental to the human experience is the right of choice between good and evil. Divine influence under these condition will require what Terry Givens has identified as the “blending and blurring of sacred and secular categories” intrinsic in Latter-day Saint culture.[31]
The second basic assumption is that the revealed word is the best place to discover the divine role--in scriptural and prophetic statements--and that these can be used, in at least some instances, to interpret human endeavor. The assumption is that the restoration of the gospel is true and that, in addition to the standard works, prophetic statements of the modern prophets, from Joseph Smith on, are reliable interpreters of the divine will. The scriptures and the inspired statements of modern prophets may thus be used as interpretive texts. Additionally, the view is that it is possible in most instances, through critical evaluation, to isolate prophetic statements from cultural trends and local beliefs.
The third assumption is that there exists a legitimate field of study yet to be explored, that there is a wide field of fruitful exploration that beckons further study. In a field that has only begun to be developed, much can be learned as we do research, ponder, study and write in the field. Many more things have been revealed than we have yet identified and studied, both within our immediate purview and on the world stage, and more prophetic statements will certainly follow as the Church spreads into widening areas of the earth and across other cultures and states.
The method of inquiry needs to have the same rigor as in secular studies. While the value of learning by “study and also by faith” is reaffirmed (D&C 88:118), the same rigor in control of sources and evidence and critical evaluation of argument needs to prevail in both the spiritual and the secular parts of the research. The Latter-day Saint providential historian should guard against using the facile interpretations drawn from the statements of prophets and apostles as a substitute for in-depth research and analysis. While Latter-day Saint providential history may begin as a new departure with its own mandate, focus and methods, it should build upon that which already exists in Latter-day Saint historical and religious studies and in other disciplines. Multi-disciplinary by nature, it will undoubtedly benefit from cross fertilization among disciplines and fields, with employment of a variety of methods.
Latter-day Saint Providential history should not only build upon existing Latter-day Saint scholarship, but may draw insight from the experience of other providential historians who have attempted to cope with many of the same issues. Much can be learned from the research, models, experience and findings of non- Latter-day Saint practitioners. Providential history with the benefit of modern revelation will provide different models and insights and different approaches to understanding, but many shared values and understandings can be productive.[32] Not only the work of inspired prophetic leaders and Latter-day Saint scholars but that of past and present thinkers from a wide array of backgrounds may enrich our understanding of the human/divine relationship over time.
Finally, Latter-day Saint providential historians must recognize that they can never learn all, only fragments, and perhaps obtain only obtain a glimpse of the divine role—which should inspire humility and caution—but that they should do all they can to discover it. The task is not easy. God has not chosen to reveal everything all at once; rather, he reveals “line upon line” and “precept upon precept,” and the full picture is sketchy at best. The question then is how to proceed under the circumstances, with both the advantages of modern revelation and the limitations contained within it.
Four Approaches
May I therefore suggest four possible approaches for further study: 1) direct application; 2) principles and patterns; 3) a distinctively Latter-day Saint philosophy of history; and 4), a comparative approach to the history and historical tenets of other beliefs and faith-based cultures
Direct application. The first approach is to integrate divine interpretations with secular themes where God has spoken directly. The most poignant example is Nephi’s vision of America as seen in 1 Nephi 13. Here the revealed word identifies that God played a direct role in inspiring Columbus in discovering America, the Pilgrim fathers in coming to the new land, and that He played a role in determining the outcome of the Revolutionary War. We can affirm these things because God has told us. We also know that God raised up “wise men” up for establishment of US Constitution, for the furtherance of freedom in the world (D&C 101: 80, 77-78). The 1978 First Presidency statement that God has inspired specific spiritual leaders and philosophers for the good of mankind provides direct evidence of a widened perception of divine influence. Numerous prophetic statements exist on the divine role in the European Reformation, the development of freedom and representative government in Britain and the rise of freedom in America as a preparation for the Restoration.[33] Likewise, the extension of freedom across the world, with specific examples of divine influence, such as the unexpected fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, have been affirmed in preparation for teaching the gospel.[34] The role of the United States as the purveyor of freedom has been affirmed in prophetic utterances.[35]
Numerous prophetic statements reaffirm the divine outpouring of scientific and technological knowledge in this dispensation, as a means of accelerating the preaching of the gospel and the work of the Church. These have been identified in providing transportation for missionaries and general authorities, in aiding in the training of leaders, and in moving forward family history and temple work.[36] Presumably, in many other fields of technological development, in a host of other fields of endeavor, in the shaping of attitudes and opinion toward the Church, and in other aspects in the rise of the Lord’s kingdom, statements of divine involvement exist, and only need to be integrated into our general appreciation of the divine role.
In specific cases, where God has indicated his direct involvement, and where reaffirming statements exist from multiple prophetic sources, it would appear relatively straightforward to integrate the divine role into the unfolding of events, though one must constantly be on guard against misinterpretation. For those Latter-day Saints who have confidence in the prophetic word, the evidence is convincing if it comes from those whom they deem to be reliable interpreters of the divine will. While much of modern history in many parts of the world remains beyond the purview of these statements, they do in fact allow us to interpret with some degree of reliability several of the major trends of modern western history, with an expanding vista of other cultures and societies. Undoubtedly, as the Lord’s work expands among other peoples and cultures, so will the prophetic interpretive statements of his actions (see Amos 3:7). Many such statements undoubtedly already exist, the import of which has yet to be assimilated, and have not yet been compiled for general use.
While the approach of attributing divine influence only where it has been indicated in multiple prophetic statements cross-referenced for verification is limited in scope, it has the advantage of raising the level of credibility of the findings, so that the interpretation has more intrinsic reliability. For the believer, the level of credibility may be elevated to that of what the lawyer would term “beyond reasonable doubt,” and invites the attribution of faith. It avoids the problem of attributing too much to divine influence, where the record is hazy or incomplete. But much of the divine reach is beyond its purview as no statements of divine influence exist in many specific situations.
Principles and patterns. Elder Alexander B. Morrison, Emeritus member of the first Quorum of Seventy, in his reflections on Latter-day Saint providential history, has suggested some principles which may serve as a guide in exploring God’s influence in history. These include God’s universal love and concern for all His children, His balancing of the principles of order and liberty, the concepts of human and eternal progression, and the role of prophets in revealing God’s will.[37] Is God on the side of freedom? While there may be circumstances in which an extension of freedom would not be in the best human interest, President David O. McKay has indicated that: “The history of the world, with all its contentions and strife is largely an account of man’s effort to free himself from bondage and usurpation.”[38] To know that Satan and the forces of evil have great influence and seek both the spiritual and temporal enslavement of mankind is helpful to the providential historian. Seeking to identify divine influences may be elusive in specific instances, such as wars and battles won or lost, or great strides in the progress of human freedom, for example, but knowledge of general principles may be very useful in helping us know where to look.
There are many prophetic statements that the current divulgation of knowledge in the scientific, technological and information revolutions of modern times are of divine origin, for the accomplishment of his work—to bless the world and to hasten work of the Church. While it may not be possible to locate a prophetic statement on each development—although there are some very precise statements on some things—it may be possible to identify the general trend of developments in which divine influence is manifest. We may also surmise that, as in many cases identified, Satan will subvert these important developments to his own purpose.
If we know, from revelation of principles, that God champions certain causes and works in certain ways, we can at least assemble collateral and circumstantial evidence of divine influence. While circumstantial evidence may not establish the verity of a proposition “beyond reasonable doubt,” it may be imputed with a certain element of probability. In a world of uncertainty, the “perhaps” of one’s affirmation of divine influence may nevertheless be of worth. Such affirmations always invite further research and reflections, as we adhere to Paul’s admonition to “prove all things: hold fast that which is good” (1 Thess. 5:21).
While divine intervention may follow certain recognizable principles, it may also be possible to recognize certain patterns in God’s intervention. In a 1969 article suggesting the possibilities of Latter-day Saint revelatory heritage for providential history, Richard Bushman discussed the explanatory value of the long-standing Latter-day Saint model of dispensations of the gospel, in which the falling away of subsequent groups has required the calling of a new prophet and the inauguration of a new gospel dispensation.[39] While it may not be possible to apply this pattern of divine intervention to all situations, it may serve as a useful foil against which to frame other interpretations. Hugh W. Nibley, for example, has made an immense contribution to our understanding of human societies in tracking down symbols and practices, notably in temple worship, which presumably have descended from earlier more spiritually enlightened generations.[40]
Undoubtedly influenced by Nibley, who was one of his influential mentors, John W. Welch has further developed the idea of divine patterns of intervention in a wide-ranging discussion of the similarities in the preparation of society prior to the advent of Jesus Christ and Joseph Smith, and in the succeeding apostolic ministries and growth of the new churches. Patterns of divine influence may provide clues as to the divine role, for the Lord has declared “I have given you a pattern in all things that you might not be deceived” (D&C 52:14).[41] More recently, Welch has identified a pattern of divine interaction which, as a result of divine foreknowledge, may involve the sequential unfolding of a series of circumstances, leading to a desired outcome. This he has documented in his discovery of chiasmus in the Book of Mormon, in which several circumstances prepared the way to the moment of divine influence or intervention.[42] Many scientists and researchers can attest to a similar phenomenon—the realization that their insights came from outside themselves—in the discovery process, after long hours of searching and pondering.[43]
Further reflection on this idea provides insight into the nature of divine causation which may not be limited to cause and effect as understood in secular history, but may involve chains of events, some the result of evil acts, which by God’s timely intervention can be turned to good ends. The story of Joseph of old who was sold into Egypt through the animosity of his brothers, but thereby was put in a position to save his family from the famine, is a case in point. The divine preparation for the Restoration of the gospel in converging chains of events may in fact provide a pattern of divine influence, which has explanatory value in other settings.[44] It helps to explain how God can accomplish his purposes, without infringing on the agency of man. The themes and underpinnings of this intellectual construct are gospel-based in that modern revelation gives divine purpose and also patterns (D&C 52:4), which ostensibly may be extended to secular history.
A Latter-day Saint philosophy of history. Latter-day Saints possess a strong world view or personal philosophy, based on their understanding of the purpose of life, the role of continuing revelation, the infinite atonement of Jesus Christ, sacred priesthood ordinances, and a deeply entrenched concept of the unfolding of history leading to an ultimate millennial reign. This, in fact, opens the door to the development of a philosophy of providential history, which is consistent with what we know of divine will and purposes, within the context of latter-day revelation.
A philosophy of Latter-day Saint providential history gives rise to many possibilities. Combining learning by “study and also by faith,” a philosophy of history may be built up which is consistent with revealed concepts, though interpretation of specific events may not necessarily be linked directly to any divine pronouncement. Important studies may thus be undertaken, which do not combine prophetic statements with historical inquiry, but which function in a Latter-day Saint world view--a framework informed by of the principles, values and belief system of the restored gospel.[45] In the broadest sense, a Latter-day Saint philosophy of history may include all of the approaches to providential history outlined earlier, which build on a gospel-based paradigm. The gospel and teachings of Jesus Christ may be used as the yardstick of what is right and wrong. Scholars functioning within such a philosophy may draw on insights from revealed religion in their interpretations where these are sustained by empirical evidence without jeopardizing their academic reputation with secular colleagues.
One dimension of a Latter-day Saint philosophy of history may include committed scholarship, scholarship with purpose. Scholarship in that paradigm is committed to this basic premise that the Restoration is true and has confidence that rigorous academic scholarship will sustain this position, though such interpretations may be contested by those with opposing agendas. “Committed” Latter-day Saint scholars writing on church history for a church audience would appear to fall into that category. The Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, founded in 1992, was avowedly established to counteract the forays of Book of Mormon detractors by marshalling evidence which sustains the veracity of the record. The current project to publish the entirety of the Joseph Smith papers, of which several volumes have now been published,[46] would suggest that the Church has confidence that the prophetic calling of the founder of the restored Church will stand undiminished before the totality of the evidence.
Support for the idea of historical study within a philosophical framework comes from an unexpected source. Post-modernist historians, generally antithetical to faith-based history, have concluded that there is no fully objective history, that the Cartesian dialectic between subjective and objective breaks down under careful scrutiny, and all that is ultimately possible is a sound basis of interpretation.[47] It may thus be argued from the post-modernist optic, that a world view informed by modern revelation, is as sustainable as others—whether moderately Whig, feminist, economic-based or otherwise. From the point of view of the Latter-day Saint believer, a construct which is consistent with revealed religion and which includes the divine role in human affairs will undoubtedly be more meaningful and insightful than any other; and, it may be argued, will come closer to ultimate truth than any other. The relevant wealth of revealed wisdom and insight should not be neglected (see D&C 59:21).
Comparative history. One of the criticisms against Latter-day Saint providential history as we have undertaken it in order to build up a coherent system for its development is that it lacks context. It is true that not enough has been said on the philosophical deliberations of thinkers throughout the ages and of Latter-day Saint scholars in recent times on the interaction between God and man. This volume has attempted to remedy this deficiency by positioning of Latter-day Saint providential history within the context of traditional western thought, and by Brian Q. Cannon’s comparative look at Latter-day Saint providential history and other kinds of providential history.[48]
The value of these comparative approaches has been to better situate Latter-day Saint providential history and Mormon history (which, if written from a believing point of view is a branch of Latter-day Saint providential history) in terms of other scholarship, and to legitimize it as a field of study with commonalities and differences. This has been a very productive of approach, may not require an intellectual commitment to a particular view of history on the part of the scholar. This approach falls more comfortably within the domain of traditional inquiry, which seeks to be “objective” rather than to take sides on major issues, and may thus be more acceptable to non-Latter-day Saint peers. After all, there is nothing wrong with looking at any kind of phenomenon and trying to understand it within the context of other known phenomena.
But there are other broader fields to be plowed in that the Judeo-Christian mould of western society (and philosophical resistance to it) is only one avenue of exploration. Islam, for example, is another religious tradition which relies on revelation from God. Additionally, other religious cultures, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and others, rely heavily on the notion of fate, a sort of divine determinism.[49] How have historians in these cultures worked this model into their historical narratives, and what role do they assign to the man/deity relationship in comparison with the Latter-day Saint model based on operation of agency or free will under divine sovereignty? The comparative study of these with Latter-day Saint providential history could be very fruitful in terms of drawing a comparison of similarities and differences, especially against the backdrop of other Christian varieties of providential history. Such studies might prove highly instructive in illuminating both approaches, since the relationship between God and man is at the crux of any attempt to create providential history.
Developing Latter-day Saint Providential history
What then should Latter-day Saint providential history look like as a discipline? What are the discipline’s scope in theory and in practice? What areas can best be studied, what are its priorities and what avenues are open for its further development?
Theory and practicality. In theory, all human history falls within the scope of providential history as all falls within God’s plan for the salvation of His children. That plan was established before the creation of the earth. In theory, the scope of providential history thus encompasses the whole of human history on the earth since the beginning of time (see D&C 88:108-10) and God’s dealing with the whole of mankind since the beginning of written history needs to be scrutinized, and appropriate themes developed over the entire spectrum. The scope for providential history also covers people in every walk of human endeavor, for surely God has had an interest in the salvation of all his children in every age, and has played a role in their development.
A distinction needs to be made here, however, in terms of what the ultimate potential may be and what is immediately practicable. Certainly, every attempt should be made to integrate into the inquiry all that God has revealed and to the extent possible the ultimate scope of such inquiry includes the entire span of human existence and the divine role in it. But it should be remembered that until God reveals the “secret acts of men and the mighty works of God” in succeeding dispensations (D&C 88:108-10), we must proceed on the basis of what He has revealed to date, and that the human record is also very fragmentary and incomplete.
Despite these limitations, there appears to be a fruitful field of inquiry across the entire span of human history, including--according to the western paradigm--ancient studies, early Christian and medieval studies and modern history. Study of other cultures and societies who do not fit into this categorization can also be productive, as the scope of the Church becomes worldwide and broader themes emerge. The historical models and concepts of the Restoration may be tested against the empirical record and existing theories of historical development over a wide span of time.[50] In addition to study of the ancients, Latter-day Saint providential historians can continue to explore the times and circumstances of Christ’s ministry, including work on old manuscripts, the origin and development of the Christian church, the understandings and concepts of the early Christian fathers and many other themes. The modern period seems to be particularly rich in prophetic statements pertaining to the Restoration and the spread of the gospel, both in terms of geographical areas and subject matter not yet explored. The variety of subjects to explore and approaches that may be taken is expansive and evocative of specific projects. In practical reality, the limited nature of resources and the paucity of revealed information on many subjects means that specific areas of focus must be chosen with inquiries that are both feasible and manageable.[51]
The Way Forward. The Brigham Young University system would appear to be particularly well-situated for the further development of Latter-day Saint providential history for a variety of reasons. As part of its longstanding mission to enrich secular studies with truths drawn from revealed religion, the University is recognized for its “devotion to combining solid scholarship with the principles of the restored gospel.”[52] In addition, there is a significant community of scholars who have explored relevant subject areas from either the religious or the secular side, and many in both groups have reflected respectively on either the secular or spiritual connections to their discipline.[53] Finally, with a student body consisting of 65 percent returned missionaries at BYU (Provo campus), the interest among students is very high in their desire to make linkages between spiritual and secular learning.[54]
A wide variety of formats may thus be envisaged to focus knowledge and encourage research. The creation of a Latter-day Saint Providential History Association and the establishment of a website and would appear to be important steps in establishing a communication between interested scholars and providing a vehicle for the exchange and development of ideas. With administrative approval, more traditional methods of promoting the discipline on University campuses might eventually include such things as university courses, workshops, symposia, anthologies, research projects and student clubs. Integrated as a recognized discipline, Latter-day Saint providential history, as with sister disciplines, will eventually, it may be assumed, include research programs, funding for chairs, graduate training, scholarly publications and a journal.
Conclusion
The chapters in this volume, it is hoped, along with this concluding chapter, will go one step further to help establish Latter-day Saint providential history as a legitimate field worthy of further study and reflection in the Latter-day Saint community. While the focus has been largely on the value of Latter-day Saint providential history to Latter-day Saints, perhaps, as Stephen H. Webb has demonstrated in term of Latter-day Saint theology,[55] Latter-day Saint providential history may have something to offer to the study of providential history in general. The goal is to establish Latter-day Saint providential history as a recognized discipline, with the working tools necessary for productive development. Given the globalization of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the troubled state of the world, and the growing acceptability of faith-based approaches, Latter-day Saint providential history appears to be a field of study whose time has come! This essay has been an attempt to chart the way forward.
Endnotes
I am indebted to Suzy Bills, Matthew Bowman and Brian Q. Cannon, for their assistance in situating various providential historians cited in this chapter.
[1] For my prior reflections, see Roy A. Prete, “Merging the Secular and the Divine,” in Roy A. Prete, ed., Brian Q Cannon, Richard O. Cowan, D. Mark Prescott, Craig L. Ostler, assoc. eds., Window of Faith: Latter-day Saint Perspectives on World History (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center Brigham Young University, 2005), 125-42.
[2] See Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994; also, Mark T. Gilderhus, History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction, 5th ed., (Upper Saddle River, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 2003).
[3]For a more detailed appraisal, see chapter by Brian Q. Cannon, “Faith versus Objectivity: Trends in Providential and Mormon History,” herein; Brian Q. Cannon, “Providential History: The Need for Continuing Revelation,” in Prete et al, eds., Window of Faith, 143-60. On the latter three historians, see Stephen H. Webb, American Providence: A Nation with a Mission (New York: Continuum, 2004) ; Steven J. Keilor, God’s Judgments: Interpreting History and the Christian Faith (Downers Grove, IL:; InterVarsity Press, 2007); Robert E.Frykenberg, Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
[4] Cannon, “Faith versus Objectivity,” herein.
[5] See Ibid; Prete, Themes of Divine Intervention: A Latter-day Saint Perspective,” herein.
[6] Cannon, “Faith versus Objectivity,” herein.
[7] See Prete, “Merging the Secular and the Spiritual,”125-42, esp., 135-36.
[8] Robert S. Patterson and E. Dale LeBaron, “Preparing for Preaching the Gospel since 1945,” in Prete et al, eds., Window of Faith, 498-99; “Statistical Report,” General Conference, April 5, 2014, at https://www.lds.org/general-conference/sessions/2014/04?lang=eng (consulted 1 May 2014; US and Canadian membership statistics at the end of 2013 (as on Membership graph) from the Membership Department, 17 April 2014; “Temples” at http://www.lds.org/church/temples/find-a-temple?lang=eng (consulted February 22, 2014, analysis by Carma T. Prete). For accounts of Church growth and development in the Twentieth Century, see Richard O. Cowan, The Church in the Twentieth Century (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1985); Richard O. Cowan and Donald Q. Cannon, Unto Every Nation: Gospel Light Reaches Every Land (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2003); Out of Obscurity: The LDS Church in the Twentieth Century, The 29th Annual Sidney B. Sperry Symposium (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2000).
[9] See, Edward L. Kimball, “Lengthen Your Stride;” The Presidency of Spencer W. Kimball (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2005), 18-19, 113-15, 132-33, 135-39, 195-211, 225-45, 448, 452-53; also, Roger R. Keller, “Why Study World Religions?” in Prete et al, eds., Window of Faith, 216, Prete, “Merging the Spiritual and the Secular,” 133-34, Patterson and LeBaron, “Preparing for Preaching the Gospel Worldwide since 1945,” 502-03, 505-07.
[10] See Spencer W. Kimball, Regional Representatives Seminar, April 3, 1975, 19, typescript manuscript, Brigham Young University, Harold B. Lee Library, Americana Collection; chapter by Sherilyn Farnes herein.
[11] Patterson and LeBaron, “Preaching the Gospel Worldwide,” 508, 512.
[12] Mike Stobbe, AP Medical Writer “US births break record; 40 pct. are out-of-wedlock” posted on March 18, 2009 on Associated Press website http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D970HM7O0&show_article=1 (visited July 15, 2009).
[13] CNN.Com, “World, After the Tsunami, Tsunami death toll,” posted February 22, 2005 at http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/asiapcf/12/28/tsunami.deaths/ (visited July 15, 2009).
[14] See stormCARIB, Caribbean Hurricane Network, “Climatology of Caribbean Hurricanes, Hurricane Activity, Western Caribbean Region (WCAR),” Graph for “Period: 1851-2008” http://stormcarib.com/climatology/WCAR_5year.htm (visited 15 July 2009). While the five year period 1930-34 marked the most tropical storms, the period 2005-2008 had the largest number of severe hurricanes (Ibid).
[15] See James Jackson, “The May 2008 Sichuan, China earthquake: a herald of things to Come,” Geology Today, vol. 24. no. 5 (October 2008), 178-81, “Abstract” at http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/121432209/abstract (visited July 15, 2009).
[16] The Washington Post, “Haiti raises earthquake toll to 230,000,” February 10, 2010, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/09/AR2010020904447.html (visited February 1, 2011). This was followed by an even stronger earthquake in Chile, but the loss of life proved to be much less.
[17] See Henry B. Eyring, BYU-Idaho devotional address, summarized in “Continue Seeking Higher Ground,” Church News, February 5, 2005, 2, 7. “The waves of the sea heaving themselves beyond their bounds” is a particular effect of tsunamis and hurricanes, but could possibly also refer as some speculate to the future effects of global warming.
[18] See President Thomas S. Monson, “Be of Good Cheer,” Ensign, May 2009, 89-92. President Monson began his address in General Conference on 5 April 2009 with the observation: “The global economy, which six months ago appeared to be sagging, seems to have taken a nosedive, and for many weeks now the financial outlook has been somewhat grim. In addition, the moral footings of society continue to slip, while those who attempt to safeguard those footings are often ridiculed and, at times, picketed and persecuted. Wars, natural disasters, and personal misfortunes continue to occur.” After giving the injunction quoted above, to “walk uprightly and keep the commandments,” he concluded: “My beloved brothers and sisters, fear not. Be of good cheer. The future is as bright as your faith” (Ibid).
[19] See “Thematic Overview” to Part 4, herein.
[20] Brian Q. Cannon, “Providential History: The Need for Continuing Revelation,” in Prete et al, eds., Window of Faith, 155.
[21] See Richard O. Cowan and Craig J. Ostler, “The Divine Plan and Providential History,” herein.
[22] Craig J. Ostler, “Earthquakes, Wars, Holocausts, Disease, and Inhumanity: Why Doesn’t God Intervene?” in eds. Prete et al, Window of Faith, 197-211.
[23] See Scott C. Esplin, “‘God of the Whole Earth’: The Scriptural Foundation for Providential History,” herein.
[24] Latter-day Saints aver the authenticity of the Bible as “the word of God” with allowances being made for possible mistranslations (see Articles of Faith, 8), and also for significant omissions (see 1 Nephi 13: 24-28). Presumably, many, if not all, of these errors and omissions have been corrected in the Joseph Smith translation. According to two recent scholars, the Joseph Smith translation, although never published, was essentially complete for the New Testament by 1833 (Paul W. Lambert and Thomas Wayment, “The Nature of the Pen and Pencil Markings in the New Testament of Joseph Smith’s New Translation of the Bible,” BYU Studies, vol.47, no. 2 [2008] 100-101).
[25] Cf. Prete, “Merging the Secular and the Spiritual,”127.
[26] For the First Presidency’s resolution of a doctrinal dispute in the twentieth century, see, James B. Allen, “The Story of The Truth, The Way, The Life,” in B. H. Roberts, The Truth, The Way, The Life, ed. John W. Welch, 2d ed. (Provo, Utah: BYU Studies, 1996), 693-713.
[27] See LeRoy E. Whitehead, “Latter-day Saint Providential History: The Scriptures as Model and Guide,” herein.
[28] A detailed study, for example, of the contribution of Latter-day Saint scripture to Latter-day saint providential history, detailing the contribution of each volume, would make a good topic for a doctoral dissertation or an informed book on the subject, while the views on divine providence and the divine role in history of each of the sixteen prophets who have served as president of the Church since Joseph Smith would make good topics for a fourth year history research and writing seminar.
[29] This section is based on preliminary reviews of this work, conversations with Latter-day Saint scholars and personal experiences since 1999, when I began work in the field.
[30] See Cannon, “Faith versus Objectivity,” herein.
[31] Terryl L. Givens, “‘There Is Room for Both’: Mormon Cinema and the Paradoxes of Mormon Culture,” BYU Studies, vol. 46, no. 2 (2007), 191-92.
[32] The work of pre-Enlightenment providential historians, such as Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet in France, and his American contemporary, Cotton Mather, may prove to be of particular interest. (See Cannon, “Providential History: The Need for Continuing Revelation,” in Prete et al, eds., Window of Faith, 143).
[33] Ezra Taft Benson, Teachings of Ezra Taft Benson (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1985), 108-09; Gordon B. Hinckley, “Special Convocation to Present Lady Thatcher with an Honorary Doctorate Degree,” Brigham Young University, March 5, 1996; also statements referenced in Robert R. Newell, Carma T. Prete, Roy A. Prete, “European Origins of Freedom in America” in Prete, et al, eds., Window of Faith, 319, 323; Milton V. Backman Jr., “The Rise of Freedom in America,” in Prete et al, eds., Window of Faith, 341-43.
[34] Statement by Gordon B. Hinckley, First Presidency Christmas Devotional, in “News of the Church,” Ensign, February 1990, 75.
[35] See President Joseph F. Smith statement in the April 1903 General Conference, reproduced in Joseph F. Smith, Gospel Doctrine (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1919), 409
[36] See Farnes, “Divine influences in Technology: The Fourfold Mission of the Church,” herein.
[37] Elder Alexander B. Morrison, “God in History,” in Prete et al, eds., Window of Faith, 1-12.
[38] David O. McKay, Conference Report, October 1965, 8
[39] Richard R. Bushman, “Faithful History,” in George D. Smith, ed., Faithful History: Essays on Writing Mormon History (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1992), 8-12.
[40] See Hugh Nibley, The Ancient State: The Rulers and the Ruled, eds. Stephen Ricks and Donald W. Parry (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book/Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1991); Hugh Nibley, Temple and Cosmos: Beyond This Ignorant Present (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book/Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1992).
[41] John W. Welch, “Early Mormonism and Early Christianity: Some Providential Similarities,” in Prete et al, eds., Window of Faith, pp. 17-38.
[42] John W. Welch, “The Discovery of Chiasmus in the Book of Mormon, 40 Years Later,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 16/2, 74-99; (Notes of Roy A. Prete of John W. Welch after luncheon presentation at BYU on 11 July 2008).
[43] See Sherilyn Farnes and Roy A. Prete, “The Discovery Process: Spiritual and Secular Parallels,” in Prete et al, eds., Window of Faith, 235-46.
[44] See Prete, “From Joseph to Joseph: Divine Foreknowledge and the Fulfillment of the Divine Plan,’ herein.
[45] See, for example, the two essays by renowned scholar, De Lamar Jensen, “Renaissance: The Beginning of Religious Reform” and “Reformation and Pre-Restoration,” in Prete et al, eds, Window of Faith, 261-89.
[46] See The Joseph Smith Papers: Journals: Journals, vol. 1, 1831-1839 ed. Dean C. Jessee et al (Salt Lake City: Church Historian’s Press, 2008), and subsequent volumes.
[47] See Georg G. Iggers, From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (Hanover, N.H.: Weslyan University Press, 1997). Postmodernism is concerned with new interpretations of art, literature and other forms of expression related to the post-industrial phase of society.
[48] Brian Q. Cannon, “Faith vs. Objectivity: Trends in Providential and Mormon History,” herein; Brian Q. Cannon, “Providential History: The Need for Continuing Revelation,” in Prete et al, eds, Window of Faith, 143-60.
[49] For a reliable text on world religions, see Mary Pat Fisher, Living Religions, 8th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ : Pearson Prentice Hall, 2011).
[50] As indicated in the course of this essay and those preceding it, the Restoration contains within it several concepts and themes of historical development. The idea that there have been repeated apostasies and successive dispensation of the gospel and that there has been a falling away of the original Christian Church and a subsequent Restoration, for which favorable circumstance, including the rise of freedom and a new American nation had to be prepared, is a sweeping theory of history. The notion that the covenant people of the Old Testament fared in their history according to their observance of the covenant, reaping either peace, prosperity and divine protection for faithful observance of the covenant, or famine, pestilence, scattering and destruction for non-observance, is a powerful historical model. The pride cycle of the Book of Mormon with spiritual attainment, prosperity and pride followed by wickedness and destruction is a model with multiple applications. There are several others not identified. Models of the rise and fall of civilizations suggested by historians such as Arnold Toynbee, Will and Ariel Durant and Herbert Butterfield, and many other theories of historical development, may be tested against those suggested by concepts of the Restoration.[51] Those topics on which modern prophets and apostles have spoken specifically and which are the most immediately relevant are particularly well-situated for immediate exploration. A symposium on Noah, for example, would draw together information from a wide range of fields and what has been learned from modern revelation. A book on the views of all the presidents of the Church on the role of God in History would be most illuminating and make a major contribution to Latter-day Saint providential history studies. My initial goal in approaching the study of Latter-day Saint providential history was to write a book, The Christian Era: From Christ to Christ, which would integrate into the history of the Christian era the divine influence, to the extent that it could be ascertained.
[52] Y Facts / BYU, “Overview” at http://yfacts.byu.edu/viewarticle.aspx?id=130 (visited July 25, 2009)
[53] The situation here seems reminiscent of the early life of the Calvin College school of providential history in which a group of interested scholars united to advance the discipline (see Cannon, “Faith versus Objectivity,” herein).
[54] The honors course, “The Secular and the Divine in World History since 1500” which I taught as a visiting professor at BYU in winter semester 2001, was the first section to fill up. The fact that it was taught Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 10:00 am may also have been a factor. In 2008, 45 percent of student at BYU (Provo campus were returned missionaries (Y Facts / Percentages of RMs “Percentages of Students who have served missions,” http://yfacts.byu.edu/viewarticle.aspx?id=264 [accessed 25 July 2009]), but since the age of eligibility to serve missions was lowered in 2012 to 18 for men and 19 for women, the percentage of returned missionaries has increased dramatically—to 65 percent in 2017 (Tad Walch, “How LaVell Edwards changed his mind about Mormon missions and changed BYU's football culture,” 5 January 2017, at https://www.deseretnews.com/article/865670554/How-LaVell-Edwards-changed-his-mind-about-Mormon-missions-and-changed-BYUs-football-culture.html (accessed 7 November 2018).
[55] See Stephen H. Webb, Mormon Christianity: What Other Christians Can Learn from the Latter-day Saints (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).